Boeing’s early lunar base concept of 1959by Hans Dolfing
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| From the start, the document titled “Human Factors - Lunar Observatory” provides a fascinating view of the late 1950s effort. To keep an expeditionary force on the Moon alive for such observations required some pretty deep thinking. |
The study SR-183 commenced April 4, 1958, and included the unclassified “Lunar Observatory Study” as well as the April 1960 classified “Military Lunar Base Program.”[2,17,19] It had three funded and three voluntary contractors. The three funded contractors were Boeing Airplane Company from Seattle, Washington, under contract AF18(600)-1824; North American Aviation from Downey, California; and United Aircraft Corporation from East Hartford, Connecticut.[2]
In a completely separate but contemporary effort, the US Army studied a future lunar base via “Project Horizon” starting on March 20, 1959. Overviews of this and a myriad of related lunar programs at the time have been studied elsewhere.[10-13,18]
More than six decades later, the USAF SR studies remain shrouded in mystery and minimal content has been published. For this particular Boeing Lunar base study, there at least 35 technical reports of between 8 to 230 pages each, for a total of 1,596 pages.[1,4,5,23,24] The number of pages clearly demonstrate that this was a significant effort: it has twice as many pages as compared to the Army’s “Project Horizon”.[3,10,11,23] Here, several of Boeing’s reports are examined in more detail to share a picture of the envisioned lunar innovation.[1,4,5]
From the start, the document titled “Human Factors - Lunar Observatory” and numbered D7-3046 provides a fascinating view of the late 1950s effort.[1] To keep an expeditionary force on the Moon alive for such observations required some pretty deep thinking. After all, this was a decade before America finally set foot on the moon in 1969. At 80 pages, it starts with an introduction, summary, and recommendations, followed by a discussion of the lunar base plus the mobility aspects on how to get around and get work done on the Moon. The report also mentions input from related human engineering study results such as from Dyna-Soar.[14]
It was clear that the costs of transporting all food, water, and oxygen to the Moon would be prohibitive, if not impossible, with the technology of the time. Therefore, the most pressing issues in the study were not the rockets but the how to recycle and farm effectively to save transported mass. Topics such as zero-gravity urine and wastewater recycling equipment were fairly new. Food recycling in zero gravity needed work as well, and photosynthetic air recycling systems with the use of algae and plants was almost science fiction. The study realized that putting the astronauts effectively on a vegetable or algae diet would be a big ask but it was a possibility, as they did not know how to farm animals on the Moon yet. The document observes “The expansion of algae and broadleaf plant systems to support animal proteins as in fish or chickens presents an interesting challenge.”[1]
A multi-step approach would be necessary to bootstrap an effective operation such as an observatory on the Moon. On the first landing, the initial activities of astronauts were projected to include scientific measurements and making color images, which was really not dissimilar from what actually happened ten years later with Apollo 11. The initial thinking on how to move instruments and equipment around on the Moon was to put them on a toboggan sled that was to be pulled and towed by an astronaut.
| It was clear that the costs of transporting all food, water, and oxygen to the Moon would be prohibitive, if not impossible, with the technology of the time. Therefore, the most pressing issues in the study were not the rockets but the how to recycle and farm effectively to save transported mass. |
In a related study, crew sizes roughly between 2 and 21 astronauts were compared and evaluated into required living space for the lunar base. Figure 1 provides a visualization. A small base aimed at four to six astronauts for six months on the Moon offered a base size of 4,275 cubic feet (121 cubic meters). A larger base concept aimed at supporting 21 astronauts in a space of 7260 cubic feet (205 cubic meters) for a six-month stay. That size was the total enclosure for all items except reactor, large optics and antennae plus 10% allocated to growth.[18]
With respect to the mission for a lunar base, the study observes, “The primary mission of the lunar base is assumed to be to collect, record, process and transmit data.” This mission would entail the use of analog and digital computers. The fact that some of these had never been tested in a low- or high-gravity environment was a challenge. Unlike the pocket-size devices of today, this was at the advent of the computer age where machines were often wall-sized with delicate components such as vacuum tubes.
On the data processing side, an example of a contemporary digital computer was the IBM 704 used roughly between 1955 and 1960. It used vacuum tubes for logic and magnetic cores for memory. The word length was 36 bits and it was programmed with the brand new FORTRAN programming language. It could run at 12 kFLOPS for scientific computations. Based on the memo in Figure 2, we know that Boeing used such a machine for lunar trajectory calculations related the SR-183 project.[15]
Note that the memo is dated May 24, 1960, from the civilian NASA Langley Research Center addressed to the military USAF Air Research and Development Command (ARDC) at Langley related to Boeing’s work on SR-183 and lunar trajectory calculations. While the memo has survived at the National Archives and Records Administration (NARA), the enclosed listings and stacks of punch cards with the program code are missing.[15,16]
 Figure 2: Boeing SR-183 request for lunar trajectory computation progress. [16] |
With respect to mobility, ideas of “space suits” and pressurized environments had been discussed many years earlier. It was clear that a pressurized lunar base was necessary to assure the physiological and psychological well-being of the crew.[1,9] This led to questions on how to maintain a treatable atmosphere, the ecological system required, and tools and suits for work and maintenance in vacuum.
To live in a pressurized base on the Moon required special consideration of the atmospheric environment similar to scuba diving. While detailed assessments were calculated in separate reports, the summary here was that an atmosphere equivalent to a height of 10,000 feet (3,000 meters) would work and avoid hypoxia. It was observed that “It is estimated that the average oxygen consumption per man for 24 hours will be 800 liters and the corresponding carbon dioxide produced will be 300 liters.” The atmospheric challenges were summarized as, “Two of the major problems to be investigated in the further development of breathing air systems are first, the improvement of photosynthetic methods and second, the determination of toxic gases accumulating over a period of time from either human or material sources.”
| “It has been shown by various workers that it is possible to maintain adult males, in excellent health, on a diet composed solely of chemically pure amino acids, corn oil, dextrose, vitamins and minerals… Although a diet of this type leaves much to be desired insofar as palatability is concerned, highly motivated individuals should be able to use it without difficulty over relatively long periods of time.” |
As an example of toxic gases, think about the challenge of analog film development with three chemical baths. How those baths would work in a lunar low gravity environment required more study, but the volatile chemicals should not stay in the lunar base atmosphere for a long time. Therefore, how to maintain a healthy atmosphere was a subject for a lot of study.
Low lunar gravity was not expected to result in any food savings. A diet with 3,000 calories was seen as sufficient. As food is heavy and bulky, various creative and/or radical options were considered: “It has been shown by various workers that it is possible to maintain adult males, in excellent health, on a diet composed solely of chemically pure amino acids, corn oil, dextrose, vitamins and minerals.” In addition: “Although a diet of this type leaves much to be desired insofar as palatability is concerned, highly motivated individuals should be able to use it without difficulty over relatively long periods of time.” Recycling via algae or a hydroponic broadleaf farm was considered. Fish farms were discussed as a possibility as a protein source. Various combinations were qualitatively compared to identify the most nutritious system with lowest mass. Several unknowns, such as the consistency and suitable of lunar soil for farming, could not be addressed due to missing information at the time.
With respect to lunar space suit design, several options were considered.[1,9] First was an ideal suit similar to a pressure garment. While an impediment to mobility, it would allow roughly 70% sea level pressure and free circulation of the atmosphere. Hands can be used as usual via gloves. A collapsible radiation umbrella was considered on top of the helmet to help with the climate control. The second was a more realistic space suit of light metal parts, which looked like a 1950s robot. It would allow enough protection of the user at the price of less mobility and more awkward gestures and work. In particular, gloves were replaced with metal grippers, grabbers, and hooks.
The third and most innovative solution to mobility of the lunar surface was called a “Spheroid suit.” Envision a large ball about three meters across extended with legs to walk, plus forward manipulation grippers and hooks. It was a concept to improve overall personnel protection as well as flexibility of operations and tool handling. Control consoles and oscilloscopes were thought to be installed on the inner surface in front of the operator. Most interestingly, overall flexibility would be increased as the spheroid was only a part of the overall system of tools. This suit was a plug-n-play, modular solution and it could click into a lunar bulldozer for serious digging as well as into a flying lunar transport disc to move around the lunar surface.
Another aspect of the Boeing lunar base study was a full observatory on Moon, which could be used for remote sensing as well as for Earth and astronomical observations. Through military eyes, the observation of missile launches on Earth from the high vantage of the Moon looked attractive. After all, the front side of the Moon always faces Earth via tidal lock. These days, such observations and early warnings are with the SBIRS satellite system.
More details on those observations are in a Boeing report titled “Observations from a lunar scientific base.”[4] The document contains 42 pages and is introduced with the quote, “Some of the advantages and disadvantages of performing scientific observations from a base on the moon are discussed.” Advantages include the stability of a telescope on solid ground while the disadvantages include the cost and harsh environment on the Moon. An artificial satellite in Earth orbit instead of on the Moon is estimated to be 5 to 10 times cheaper.[4]
On the civilian scientific side, lunar telescopes were discussed to observe the universe as they would be free of atmospheric turbulence and hence achieve clearer images. In addition to optical telescope observation, there was a long list of other possible observations such as on selenology and seismology, magnetic fields, nuclear particles, meteoroids, and radio astronomy.
| While the use of nuclear explosions for seismic sounding is frowned upon these days, this was a perfectly reasonable instrument in the 1950s and 1960s. |
With respect to astronomical observations of the Sun and interplanetary hydrogen, it was mentioned that the base would be expensive but many observations could be done with relatively cheap instruments. An exception would be the cost of a fairly large telescope, which was rationalized as: “Resolution due to such turbulence is limited to 1/4 to 1/2 second of arc, which can be equaled or surpassed by a 20 inch telescope used beyond the atmosphere. It has been estimated that a 50 inch telescope on the moon might be comparable with or even better than the 200 inch telescope on earth in this regard.” More details are discussed in other reports which have not been retrieved.[4]
One of the more interesting quotes regarding the seismic experiments is, “After preliminary travel time curves have been developed an attempt should be made to shoot a seismic wave through the moon to determine the existence and physical state of the core. At this time something will be known of the noise level of the moon and the size of the shot necessary to penetrate through the moon. One antipodal shot, (1 to 10 Kiloton atomic bomb), should give data relative to the existence of a core and the changes of velocity through the moon. A second seismometer placed within a few degrees of the atomic shot would measure the strength of reflections from any deep discontinuities.” While the use of nuclear explosions for seismic sounding is frowned upon these days, this was a perfectly reasonable instrument in the 1950s and 1960s. In the former Soviet Union, more than 100 nuclear explosions were used for deep seismic sounding and related work. Presumably, there are more sensitive, and less radical, instruments these days.[4]
In summary, these pre-Apollo Boeing documents at the crossover of the military and civilian projects provide some fascinating insights into lunar base programs after Sputnik in 1957 and before Apollo in the early 1960s. They show that other Unites States space programs, such the X-15, Dyna Soar, and project Mercury, did not stand alone but shared their findings and insights on human factors in space. The project was managed under great uncertainty as no one had visited the Moon yet and therefore many parameters were just unknown. Digital computers were new and many applications blossomed in the following years. The fundamental insight of Earth observations from space for early warning was spot-on and applicable to this day.
As the nation concentrated on a civilian NASA-led lunar effort via Apollo from May 25, 1961, all of the hard work on this Boeing study was not taken any further at the time. However, it did provide the groundwork for the later 1963 Boeing study “Initial Concept for a Lunar Base” funded by NASA as well as for the later LESA and ALSS.[18] Much remains to be learned and studied from related technical reports. [24]
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